A Brief Analysis of Kafka’s The Trial

On his thirtieth birthday, Joseph K. is arrested even though he has done nothing wrong. Naturally Joseph K. is angry and annoyed. On the day of his thirty-first birthday, Joseph K. is taken to a nearby quarry by the warders and killed. Joseph K. does nothing to stop them from killing him. The Trial is the story of the intervening year between Joseph K.'s two birthdays. This novel treats many subjects, but this paper will examine only three: the mystery of the bureaucracy in the novel, sexuality during the process, and the economic and social point of view of The Trial.The bureaucracy in The Trial is large, impersonal and frightening. Prior to the beginning of the book Joseph K. is a successful businessman working in a bank apparently on the fast track for advancement and even greater success. After his arrest he and his life decline until his execution. Although Joseph K. â€Å"is accused of crimes he did not commit . . . [he] still feels guilty about these unnamed offenses† ( Meyers, 329). This guilt plays an important role throughout the novel. Joseph K. is mentally and emotionally paralyzed by his guilt of having been accused of the unknown crime.As Boa writes, the experience of being arrested has taken Joseph K. out of his comfort zone and he is unable to operate; he doesn't know what to do. â€Å"What is the nature of the court, what is the law, what should the individual on trial do?† (1). The paralysis Joseph K. suffers appears to be psychological rather than due to a physical threat. The parable told to Joseph K. by the priest provides an accurate description of the state Joseph K. is in. In the parable a man from the country comes to have access to the law however the doorkeeper will not admit the man.The doorkeeper steps aside from the doorway and offers no physical resistance, but the man is paralyzed by what might be done by the institution. â€Å"‘If you are so strongly tempted, try to get in without my permission. But note that I am powerful. And I am only the lowest doorkeeper. From hall to hall, keepers stand at every door, one more powerful than the other . . .'† (Kafka, 267-8). Rather than confront these possibilities the man sits on a stool by the door and waits. This is precisely what Joseph K. does. He tacitly accepts the non-accusation of the court and submits to its jurisdiction. One cannot help but feel that if he were refuse to comply with the court that he would be free to continue living his life. The mystery of the bureaucracy of the court appears to be a psychological threat of the unknown combined with a man's natural inclination to obey the institutions that govern the locality where he lives.The second area this paper will address is sexuality during the process. During the year of the trial, Joseph K. has a brief flirtation with Fraulein Brustner but she later refuses his advances. It is interesting that â€Å"Brustner† is very close to the German word â€Å"brusten† meaning breast. The desire to dominate a woman has considerable Freudian implications that suggest that Kafka was greatly influenced by his mother, the source of his life and breastfeeding, and not always in a positive manner.During this encounter Joseph K. kisses her â€Å"all over the face, like some animal lapping greedily at a spring of long-sought fresh water† (Kafka, 38). This is an interesting foreshadowing of his execution where he dies â€Å"[l]ike a dog† (Kafka, 286). After kissing her Joseph K. returns home, â€Å"[h]e fell asleep almost at once, but before doing so he thought for a little about his behavior, he was pleased with it, yet surprised that he was not still more pleased† (38).This appears to be an example where a man dominates a woman to get his will without regard to her desire. This strength is uncharacteristic of Joseph K. particularly in regard to the affair he has with Leni, Huld's nurse. Leni appears to like men who are vulnerable. S he has considerable control over her employer who must accept her care because of his heart condition and because she is unaccountable attracted to Joseph K. who is vulnerable because of the accusation against him.From an economic and social point of view The Trial is particularly interesting. The Trial â€Å"moves beyond the household to explore the interlocking of social power and psychic structure in urban society at large† (Boa, 133). Adler suggests that Kafka is writing about â€Å"[t]wo defining factors stand out in this period.Firstly, the conflict between Czech, German and Jewish traditions; and secondly, the struggle between Prague's history and modernisation [sic]† Kafka appears to have had trouble reconciling these three worlds in his own life and feels he is unable to successfully struggle against the enormous, looming presence of the government and his religious background. It is interesting that Joseph K. actually has considerable impact, although it appe ars is unaware of it.In fact, the Court even follows his requests and confirms his assumptions. Although K. tells himself what time he should arrive for his first interrogation, this turns out to be the same hour mentioned by the Examining Magistrate. K. decides that he will attend only one interrogation, instead of the series of short interrogations planned by the Court, and the Court complies K. accuses the warders, and the Court promptly punishes them . . . . (Lasine, 34).It is this lack of awareness of the capabilities that Kafka seems to warning the reader about. The Trial is not to be viewed as a plan or even a call to change society, but an examination of authority intended to help people think for themselves about the issues in the book (Boa, 186).The Trial is a haunting frightening book in the same genre as the later books Orwell's 1984 and Huxley's Brave New World. However, it is more subtle and thought provoking. Given the multi-leveled layers of bureaucracy both governme ntal and in business one wonders if The Trial is not more relevant today that when it was written near the beginning of World War I. Given the excess of administrative law with its great power that is not subject to many of the protections of due process, it is easy to empathize with Joseph K.Works CitedAdler, Jeremy. â€Å"What Was Lost? The Czech Jewish Community.† European Judaism. 38, 2 (2005) 70+. Boa, Elizabeth. Kafka: Gender, Class, and Race in the Letters and Fictions. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1996. Kafka, Franz. The Trial. Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1957. Lasine, Stuart. â€Å"Kafka's Trial.† The Explicator. 42, 3 (1985): 34. Meyers, Jeffrey. â€Å"Swift and Kafka.† Papers on Language & Literature. 40, 3 (2004): 329.

Critical Analysis of The Iceman Cometh Essay

It is a basic law of storytelling that in order for an author to capture and maintain the reader’s interest, the author must create â€Å"realistic† characters, ones that are relatable, genuine, and plainly likeable. In the works of Eugene O’Neill, he takes that rule of realistic character development and proceeds to warp and twist it into a beautifully mangled paradigm of raw humanity and pessimism. He formulates characters that are utter derelicts to society, each one desperately hanging on to their hopeless dreams, each one hauntingly familiar to us. O’Neill, one of the more well-known twentieth century American playwrights, borrows from the thinking of Nietzsche to strip away the fluff of human personality, exposing the basic, eternally somber inner workings of the human psyche. In his plays, such as The Ice Man Cometh, O’Neill consistently portrays a classic nihilistic theme that there is no God, one of the first in his field to toy with the idea. He preaches that there is no great reward in life, that even after years, perhaps even a lifetime of suffering, there is no pay off – the only thing you get is the relief that is death. O’Neill’s The Ice Man Cometh, a play brought to Broadway which went on to celebrated success, is the story of, more or less, drunken slobs. The play’s epicenter is a bar/boarding house where a group of drunken derelicts seem to live. The hotel being named after the owner, Harry Hope, is laughably ironic, seeing as how most all of the bar flies have little or no hope left in there lives, yet they all dream of their tomorrows – paying their bills tomorrow, getting their job back tomorrow, making a fresh start tomorrow. The plot revolves around the many bar attendees, but sixty year old Larry Slade plays the role of the bitter objective commentator, a person who has decidedly removed himself from the anarchist group called â€Å"The Movement† and the responsibilities of mainstream life. He and his companions eagerly await the arrival of their salesman friend Hickey, who comes down twice a year to waste all off his money on buying everyone drinks. However before Hickey arrives, Don Parrit, the son of an ex-lover of Larry’s, a woman who was also in the Movement, comes to Larry seeking help. Apparently the Movement has nearly collapsed on account of someone selling the group out, resulting in the arrest of Parrit’s mother, Rosa. Shortly afterwards, Hickey arrives, which would usually put the men in good spirits. Hickey has changed though, and instead of being his usual enjoyable self, his is sullen and depressed, evangelically preaching to the others that they should renounce their â€Å"pipe dreams† as he has; that it is only when this is done can one truly obtain free will, a doctrine that Larry has already put into effect. That night, they celebrate Harry’s birthday, but everyone has become irritable and quarrelsome, what with Hickey’s grouchiness and unwillingness to drink. The story reaches its climax when Hickey announces the death of his wife, and all the character become infuriated with Hickey for reminding them of their pathetic grasp on pipe dreams, prompting them all to finally get moving towards turning those pipe dreams into realities. However their dreams fall apart the second they start, and they all return to the bar in the end; however their shreds of hope have been dashed by their confrontations with reality, and they all resent Hickey. Hickey then tells them that he actually killed his wife out of sheer hatred for constant forgiveness, and Parrit admits that he sold out his mother and the movement for similar reasons. Overcome with guilt, Parrit asks Larry to sentence his punishment, while Harry turns himself into the police, believing himself to be insane. Larry finally confronts his own fear of death by ordering Parrit’s suicide, in the end leaving Larry with his own desire for death. The characters in The Ice Man Cometh are essentially sad and entirely pathetic; the dynamics that exist between them seem so raw and primitive that it borders on the unreal. Although containing a well-sized cast, the play mainly focuses on the interactions between Larry, Parrit and Hickey (Bogard 51). From the beginning of the play, we are introduced to Larry as a man removed from society, one who cares not to create any more bonds or relationships with the world and its inhabitants. Larry tells us this himself when he says: †¦ So I said to the world, God bless all here, and may the best man win nd die of gluttony! And I took a seat in the grandstand of philosophical detachment to fall asleep observing the cannibals do their death dance. (O’Neill: Plays of Our time 12) Larry attempts to play the part of the coolly detached â€Å"Ubermensch† or â€Å"Overman† as proposed by Nietzsche. Nietzsche describes the Ubermensch as, â€Å"the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth! I beseech you, my brothers, remain faithful to the earth, and do not believe those who speak to you of otherworldly hopes! (â€Å"Towards the Ubermensch†). What Nietzsche basically illustrates is a man who lives in reality, and does not expect anything more from it; he does not expect an afterlife, nor any reward for his life – he is a man living by his own morals, not buying into â€Å"slave morality†, the basic set of ethics impressed upon society (Wilcox 13). However it should be noted that Larry attempts to play this role; he successfully does so, up until Don Parrit enters his life and tugs at the few heartstrings Larry has left. In the past, Larry was a father figure to Parrit, and now Parrit has come back trying to fill that paternal void in his life. After symbolically killing his mother by selling her out to the cops, Parrit yearns to find some semblance of a reliable parent. Although Larry clearly declares his new outlook on life, he is eventually convinced by Hickey to kill that pipe dream of his, his own fear of death, and takes responsibility for Parrit’s betrayal by sentencing him to his suicide. In his line â€Å"Go! Get the hell out of life, God damn you, before I choke it out of you! Go up-! † Larry is in theory sucked back into the real world by acknowledging that bond he shares with Parrit (O’Neill : Plays of Our time 138). Hickey, like Larry, is another example of the influence Nietzsche had on O’Neill. When Hickey finally returns, he preaches to the rest of the men to give up their dreams, and it is only then can one be totally free. This sudden quest to destroy the American dream is similar to Nietzsche’s rejection of the Judeo-Christian faith and it’s ideals of redemption (Orr 91). By refusing the notion of an afterlife, one is truly free in that you realize your actions have no real consequence. John Orr goes as far as to describe Hickey as both a Christ and an Antichrist figure to the barflies. His preaching offers no one salvation because they all end up back at the bar, mentally worse off than before, symbolically dead, but he himself is crucified when he turns himself in to the police. Edmund Wilson said, â€Å"†¦ [Eugene O’Neill], nearly always, with whatever crudeness, is expressing some real experience, some impact directly from life. † (382). And Wilson is right; many, if not all of O’Neill’s plays serve as a personal reflection of his thoughts and experiences in life. In cases like The Ice Man Cometh, Bogard suggests that the characters he writes about mimic the people he encountered while he spent his days in the saloons of New Orleans. As one notices in the early stage directions, the characters are described as specific â€Å"types† of people: Joe Mott being â€Å"mildly negroid in type; Piet Wetjoen â€Å"A Dutch farmer type†; and claiming McGloin has â€Å"the occupation of policeman stamped all over him† (51). There is no doubt these characters were based on people or groups of certain people he has encountered in his life. The motif of alcoholism is obvious in The Ice Man Cometh, and of course, O’Neill had first hand experience with alcohol problems. It was his constant drinking that mollified the shock of learning of his mother’s morphine addiction, and what also got him thrown out of Princeton University. Even O’Neill’s nihilistic rejection of Christianity stems from his early childhood, when he insisted that he no longer attend Catholic school, but instead go to a secular boarding school. Also, the suicide attempt of Jimmy Tomorrow and the successful suicide of Don Parrit are reflective of O’Neill’s own struggle with suicide back in 1912, ironically the same year The Ice Man Cometh takes place. With this knowledge of O’Neill’s troubled and mentally disturbed past, we are able to discern the basic themes of The Ice Man Cometh. However this in itself is no easy task, the play is multi-layered, dealing with themes that involve dreams of death, and the existence of God; however they all stem from a focal point which is the inner turmoil that exists within man. In the beginning of the play, Larry describes Hope’s Hotel to Parrit, which coincidentally enough is a perfect metaphor for the mens’ lives: What is it? It’s the No Chance Saloon. The Bedrock Bar, The End of the Line Cafe, The Bottom of the Sea Rathskellar! Don’t you notice the beautiful calm in the atmosphere? That’s because it’s the last harbor. No one here has to worry about where they’re going next, because there is no farther they can go. It’s a great comfort to them. Although even here they keep up the appearances of life with a few harmless pipe dreams about their yesterdays and tomorrows, as you’ll see for yourself if you’re here long. (O’Neill: Plays of Our Time 19). Larry repeats the idea that the hotel is â€Å"the end of the line†, that inside it’s walls there lies â€Å"no chance†, that it’s â€Å"the last harbor†. And so it is, the hotel symbolically becoming a sort of limbo, a hole in the wall place where the burnouts and ruined lives come to kill some time as they subconsciously wait for their deaths. Even O’Neill describes the hotel in the first few lines of his stage directions as: â€Å"The back room and a section of the bar of Harry Hope’s saloon on an early morning in summer, 1912. The right wall of the back room is a dirty black curtain which separates the bar†¦The back room is crammed with round tables and chairs placed so close together that it is a difficult squeeze to pass between them†¦The walls and ceiling once were white, but it was a long time ago, and they are now so splotched, peeled, stained and dusty that their color can best be described at dirty. (O’Neill: Plays of Our Time 7). The hotel exists as a microcosm removed from society; the cramped back room full of dirty furniture and even dirtier people, representing the grim reality of death that lies in the dark recesses of the inhabitants minds. To end up at this bar is to acknowledge your death. However all the hotel’s inhabitants hold on to their pipe dreams, their last great memories of reality, all making empty promises to get back on their feet. However, they still sit, waiting for the relief of death. Their relief is that they can finally end the suffering of day-to-day existence and leave this earth. Nietzsche pushes the notion that the only world that truly exists is the physical one. There remains no great dramatic ending, no glorious redemption, there is no higher being that any of us must answer to or any grand jury that is weighing our every action, â€Å"the ‘apparent’ world is the only one: the ‘true; world is mere added by a lie† (Wilcox 73). These men finally meet their death-bringer when salesman Theodore Hickman, to them known as Hickey, enters the hotel. Yearly coming by for Harry Hope’s birthday, always a bringer of life and vitality (and especially alcohol), Larry and the others notice a gross change in Hickey. He begins to unnervingly preach the glory of killing your pipe dreams. Hickey convinces the drunkards to forget those great memories of reality, forget those promises to start anew, and accept the fact that they are physically and mentally paralyzed; forever stuck in the limbo of Harry Hope’s hotel until their death (Bogard 54). Travis Bogard best explained it by saying: â€Å"Their dreams hold at least an illusion of life’s essence: movement in purposive action. Action, to be sure, will never be taken, but the dreams reveal a basic human truth: to foster life, man must preserve a minimal dream of movement†¦showing the dreamers that they will never take action†¦brings the peace of death. †

Gay and Lesbian Theater

â€Å"Gay and Lesbian Theater† Gay and Lesbian themes were introduced into the theater before the 1960s. Long before homosexual characters were seen in American plays on a regular basis, there were isolated incidents when a gay or lesbian appeared in the plot; they were called freaks when doing so. Many people were often offended by homosexuality. Cross dressing was used in performances that raised concerns about sexual and gender roles: men dressed in drag and women wore men clothing. Festivals were used to educate and entertain audiences.The theater festival was introduced to spread awareness on issues, themes, and problems that deals with gay and lesbian lifestyles in the theater. Edward Albee, William Inge, and Tennessee Williams all introduced works in the mainstream. The mainstream theatre is embracing theatre with Gay and Lesbian themes. Sometimes the move forward is furiously examined by Gays and Lesbians, like for the various performances of straight Vivienne Laxdal à ¢â‚¬Ëœs Karla and Grif. Many gays and lesbians found it offensive for its stereotypical lesbian characters and others found it refreshing for its depiction of the fluidity of sexuality.Other works such as The Boys in the Band has been successful at bringing out this sexuality. In 1980 a play as such was proven to be enjoyable and considered a new kind of play. Dealing with issues of gays is being expressed more often. In certain dramas, lifestyles of gays and lesbians were forthrightly presented. A sense of urgency was engendered by the AIDS crisis and gay rights as another concerned issue. Viewing a play like this myself tells me that it’s very true. Many people came out to see La Cage Aux Folles when I believed it would not be interesting or crowded.Other people know if actors are gay, lesbian, or bisexual, but few people would disagree that the theater world is friendly toward a variety of nonconformist than most professional fields. Same-sex love has been associated with acting for over 2000 years in the west during Roman times. It has been said that these types of relationships are accepted in this type of profession because it’s considered the least respectful environment. Viewers are less likely to accept same-sex lovers than the company who hires them.The text stated that gay, lesbian, and bisexual actors support the Queer Theory considers the â€Å"performative† nature of gender: the idea that gender â€Å"identity† is actually nothing more than a â€Å"role† actor learns to do what’s necessary. Actors may be more skilled at their role with this type of experiment and not be judged by society, if that statement is true. Living double lives in the theater wasn’t very hard to do. Publicist often manipulated the media making easier for actors to do so. Actors such as Montgomery Clift, James Dean, Greta Garbo, Cary Grant, and Randolph Scott lived these constricted lives.The text stated that 29 percent of Am ericans would be â€Å"less interested† in seeing their favorite actor perform in a movie or TV show if they learned that he or she was â€Å"gay† in 1995. Many actors who were gay often didn’t want their named linked to anything they choose to provide to the media. Gay and lesbian actors are more seen in films and on stage a lot more today. Sexuality is still a question rather it should be should treated as heterosexuals would still remains. You can enjoy an ordinary film the same you would a film with homosexuals. As I stated early I’ve viewed a play with men dressed in drag as well as men dating women in a play.Their acting skills are just the same. Who or how they choose to live their personal lives doesn’t affect their acting skills. Some viewers still don’t agree with it along with critic but it’s amongst our society within all cultures. Bibliography Hischak, Gerald Bordman and Thomas S. â€Å"Gay and Lesbian Theatre in America . † 2004. The Oxford Companion to America Theater. 20 April 2010 ;http://www. encyclopedia. com;. ;. Hudson, Steve Hogan and Lee. Completely Queer: The Gay and Lesbian Encyclopedia. Markham: Henry Holt and Company Inc. , 1998. Wilson, Edwin. The Theatre Experience. 11th. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

CRIMINAL AND CIVIL LAW IN HEALTH CARE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

CRIMINAL AND CIVIL LAW IN HEALTH CARE - Essay Example Consequently, healthcare contracts ensure that parties are informed of their rights and obligations, and provide remedies for breach by one or more parties to an agreement. It also clarifies parties’ intentions and can be used for future references to resolve misunderstandings among parties to it (Pozgar, 2012). It defines an agreement by parties to establish, and be bound by their specified terms. Express contracts can be oral or written and written contracts override oral contracts (Simmers, Nartker and Kobelak, 2008). This is a contract in which one of the parties can relinquish his or her obligations because of lack of some of the essentials of a contract. The type of contract however, remains valid until it is revoked (Pozgar, 2012). Other types of a contract are defined in terms of nature of involved subject matter such as contracts for reality defining contracts that involve â€Å"real estate and interest in real estate,† contracts for goods involving â€Å"movable objects with exception of money and securities,† and contract for services involving human efforts (Pozgar, 2012, p. 87). Essential elements of a valid a contract in healthcare are agreement, which defines offer and acceptance, and consideration. An offer refers to a promise by a party or parties to undertake acts, of commission or omission, on provision that the other party or parties will undertake specified acts of either omission or commission. An offer is only valid when the ‘offeror’ intends to be bound by the terms. Acceptance however defines a party’s consent, subject to legal provisions, to be bound by the terms of offer. It must involve â€Å"mutual consent,† be â€Å"definite and complete,† be made before the offer is revoked or within a reasonable period, and must be â€Å"complete and confirming† (Pozgar, 2012, p. 87). Another element of healthcare contract, consideration,

Environmental economics. Article review 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Persuasion Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Persuasion - Research Paper Example â€Å"Ethical behavior is very significance and important in the society (Johannesen, 2007).† In this paper we will explore the internal and external factors that influence behavior use of deception-Manipulation Theory, Four Factor Model, and Interpersonal Deception Theory. The paper also discusses how visual images, iconic images, music and aroma effect persuasion; Subliminal Messages VS. Supraliminal Messages, Backward Masking, and Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP). Internal and External Factors that Influence Behavior Positive ethical behavior is expected in all careers and engagements in life. In our current society, people do not always do what is expected from them. Sometimes a person is aware that a given action will have negative consequences but still does it. In the society, it is something nice for every person to be responsible and do only what is right. This is the best way to maintain social responsibility and ethical conduct. At the same time, a person should no t be guided to act in a given manner. Such ethical behavior and act should be intrinsic and consistent with human ethical principles, values and moral obligations. The importance of this behavior is that the society will live in harmony and reduce a great deal of problems faced in it (Freeman & Stewart, 2006). With reference to research, it is clear that manipulation theory offers a way of examining at a distinctive part of the interpersonal communication procedure that deals with the manner through which information packages. It is worth noting that manipulation theory is more concerned with the substance of the deceptive messages, the situational substances that bring them about, the extent to which the recognition of that message affects awareness of the deception and the relational effects related with deceptive messages. Ethical behavior determines a person’s action and how it will influence the people around him. For any action, it is necessary to make sure the greatest gain is realized. This can be explained using the utilitarian theory, which is a major ethical theory. According to utilitarianism, an action is viewed ethical if it promotes the greatest or best consequence. The resultant consequence, according to the utilitarian theory, should maximize happiness (Johannesen, 2007). The argument of this ethical theory is that actions are only right if they will promote happiness and wrong if they produce the opposite of happiness. Any form of ethical behavior should therefore be aimed at maximizing happiness. With reference to the Four Factor Model, whenever people are telling lies, there are usually four fundamental mechanisms at work. Such mechanisms include arousal, behavior control, emotion, and thinking. To begin with is arousal. Lying results to arousal and anxiety. This occur either due to disagreement at conflicting behavior and value, or because of the fear of being caught. The second factor is behavior control. Human beings try to have p ower over body language that might give them away. In actual fact this is impossible and leakage frequently takes place, for instance where one is controlling his or her face and his legs give him away. Emotion: Human emotions usually change whenever lying (Freeman & Stewart, 2006). Thinking: to lie, we frequently have to think harder in order to guarantee coherence in our arguments. Research records that interpersonal deception theory explains the way through which people cope

Mother by amy tan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Buy American Act for Government Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Buy American Act for Government Contracts - Essay Example The provisions of the Buy American Act therefore ensure that materials for use in developing public facilities are product of the United States. The particularly designated materials under the act’s control are iron, steel, and their products. If a construction material is a product of foreign raw materials then it only qualifies for application in developing public facilities if at least fifty percent of its raw materials are domestic (Ncsl, 2009). The act however grants leaf for application of such ‘non-domestic’ materials, in the specified category, under three conditions. The first condition is if the material is not domestically produced in either desirable quality or quantity. Leaf is also granted in cases where application of domestic products under the category would inflate costs by more at least 25 percent. A leaf is similarly granted for use of ‘non-domestic’ materials if application of domestic materials would be contrary to the interest o f the American people. A contract under such waiver is however supposed to be reported in an official and written form. BAA regulations however exempt some countries, countries with trade ties to the United States. These countries enjoy the benefits as though their products were manufactured in the United States (Ncsl, 2009). Personal position over the Buy American Requirements The Buy American Requirements’ provisions are discriminatory, unfair and against the spirit of globalization and international trade. Selective waiver of the provision to some countries identifies discrimination against the countries to which total waiver is denied. The waiver is particularly designed to favor developed countries that have advanced technology into ‘large-scale’ production. Developing countries for example lacks the capacity to supply higher quantity of materials than can be produced by the United States’ domestic resources. This therefore means that only countries w ith high production capacity can trade in the regulated materials in America. It is similarly irrational to expect a developing country to exceed the United States in production capacity if both countries have the raw material. The act therefore significantly cuts off developing companies from trade in the specified materials in public facility development. While restricting trade with a foreign country would be rational, basing the reason on quantity is unfair to both the countries that with to trade in the restricted goods and the American taxpayers. This is because cheaper and higher quality materials could be derived from other countries whose production capacity might be lower than that of the United States. I therefore hold the opinion that the act is unfair and discriminatory may negatively influence the spirit of international trade between the United States and some countries (Ludwig, n.d). The Buy American requirement and the government position of a â€Å"free marketâ₠¬  The provisions of the Buy America act completely contradict claims of a free market in the United States economy. This is because the natural forces of demand and supply control a free market as opposed to establishment of control measures by the act. Developing rules to control the market such as restricting market access to specified sellers therefore undermines the doctrine of a free market system. This is because under free market economy, which America claims to have, trade initiatives are directed by people’s ‘self-interest’

MERS-CoV Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MERS-CoV - Research Paper Example Having been first reported in 2012 in Saudi Arabia, MERS has spread in other countries through the Saudi Arabia visitors who travel in other countries (Butler, 2012). Major symptoms of MERS-CoV include fever, shortness of breath and coughing. According to a report by World Health Organization, indicates that although transmission of MERS-CoV from one person to another is one of the ways through which the illness is transmitted, it is not the major way (McKay, 2014). The viruses according to National Institute of Health based in Maryland indicate that the viruses are able to mutate once they are inhaled. The viruses are mostly transmitted through the air when an infected individual comes very close to other people (Bermingham et al, 2012). Infected camels have also major way through which the virus can be transmitted to the people. Momattin, H et al. (2013). Therapeutic Options for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) – possible lessons from a systematic review of SARS-CoV therapy. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 17

Summary of chapter 9- business ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summary of chapter 9- business ethics - Essay Example These stereotypes may be based on societal beliefs or may directly target certain ethnic groups. There may also be normal processes inherent in the company byline which they are not aware of. These processes may look nondiscriminatory at first glance but their use can lead to discriminatory practices such as policies which predicate nominations on existing members. Moral arguments are firmly based on racial and sexual grounds. Since discrimination predicates itself on the shortcomings of a group or an individual within a group, utilitarians reject such principles since they can harm collective wellbeing. Kantians however believe that this practice fails to acknowledge people as individuals. Universally it is impossible to consider that people would willingly allow themselves to be subjected to such treatment. Rawls’s theory suggests that â€Å"parties in the original position would choose for themselves the principles of equal opportunity.† Such actions go against the belief in human equality. No one would actively support such actions. An example of elimination from society through legal and political means include slavery and the repeal of the 19th amendment. Given that discrimination is predicated upon existing attitudes and practices, there is an unequal stake for women and minorities in the working environment. Even though Americans have the highest living standard in the world today, minorities in comparison of Caucasians make less income and are prone to being poor. Minorities and women are shoe horned into jobs with lower paying salaries despite doing the same amount of work as their counterparts. There have been few inroads into the top ranks in the professional business world. The U. S Supreme Court states that numerical discrepancies do not directly point to disparity in the work place, though societal examples and practices speak otherwise. Lawsuits for both sexual and

Nine Planets Essay Example for Free

Nine Planets Essay A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more| | This website is an overview of the history, mythology, and current scientific knowledge of the planets, moons and other objects in our solar system. Each page has our text and NASAs images, some have sounds and movies, most provide references to additional related information. In association with our friends at Solar System Scope we now have an interactive tour of the solar system (takes a while to load and opens in a new window)All eight planets can be seen with a small telescope; or binoculars. And large observatories continue to provide much useful information. But the possibility of getting up close with interplanetary spacecraft has revolutionized planetary science. Very little of this site would have been possible without the space program. Nevertheless, theres a lot that you can see with very modest equipment or even with just your own eyes. Past generations of people found beauty and a sense of wonder contemplating the night sky. Todays scientific knowledge further enhances and deepens that experience. And you can share in it by simply going out in the evening and looking up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The IAU has changed the definition of planet so that Pluto no longer qualifies. There are now officially only eight planets in our solar system. Of course this change in terminology does not affect whats actually out there. In the end, its not very important how we classify the various objects in our solar system. What is important is to learn about their physical nature and their histories.

Relationships In Different Cultures Essay Example for Free

Relationships In Different Cultures Essay Every culture has their own definition of family relationships. Most family  relationships stem from the concept of marriage. Different types of marriages are  accepted all around the world. Some marriages are based on civil aspects, others are  based solely on religious aspects, and most are based on both. There are two main  types of marriages throughout the world which are monogamy and polygamy. Each type  of marriage has been around for thousands of years and both the past and present  show that there are both advantages and disadvantages of each marital practice.   The most widespread form of marriage with the longest history is Monogamy.  Monogamy is the form of marriage where one man marries one woman. Ancient  Greeks, Ancient Romans, Jews, Christians, Indians, and tribes such as the Hopi and  Iroquois have regarded monogamy as the most ideal form of marriage. There are quite  a few advantages in monogamous marriages. There is typically better understandin   gand communication between the man and wife, more focus on the children leading to a  more stable family most of the time and it is better economically suited for most people.  Since there are only two spouses, monogamy has been shown to offer the highest form  of love and affection and sex relations are more regulated. Disadvantages of  monogamy arent often mentioned since its practiced by the majority of people in the  world but things can get complicated between the two spouses if abuse or adultery gets  involved. Even so, both the woman and man can divorce freely if they wish. The form of polygamy is the second prominent concept practiced throughout the world. Polygamy is when both the man and woman have freedom to have additional  mates. The historical Montagnais Tribe believed in pure polygamy. Before the French  took them over and converted them to European beliefs, both woman and men were  allowed to have multiple partners. They were a very mature culture where jealousy did  not exist and instead, they channeled their energy into loving every single person within the tribe and each child was considered everyones. Woman were actually seen as  above the men in a number of ways. Leacock describes how the woman create a very  complimentary relationship between spouses: The Montagnais woman is far from being a drudge. Instead she is a respected member of the tribe whose worth is well appreciated and whose advice and counsel is listened to and, more often than not, accepted and acted upon by her husband. (39) Leacock then goes on to explain how each gender has special labors that allow them  to create equilibrium within their culture and relationships.   Polygamy does have two forms as well. There is polygyny which is when one  husband has several wives and polyandry where one wife has several husbands. In   each situation, the single gender individual is seen as the superior one and the multi  plespouses are below them. Although not everyone believes in polygamous practices,  Joseph mentions many advantages and disadvantages that come along with sharing  her husband with 8 other woman. She states, It enables woman, who live in a society  full of obstacles, to fully meet their career, mothering and marriage obligations; it  provides a whole solution. On the other side she says, there is a longing of intimacy  and comfort that only he can provide (A31). This proves that in any practice of  polygamy there are advantages as in having more freedom, but sometimes all of the  emotional, mental, sensual, etc. needs may not be met. My ideal relationship is probably very similar to other girls of my age. All Ive ever  wanted is one faithful monogamous relationship in my lifetime. Everyone has a soul  mate and hopefully one day I will find mine and we can develop not only a relationship,  but also a friendship built on true love, trust and honesty. From that, we can raise  children in a loving, supportive, and healthy although somewhat discipline environment  while loving my spouse unconditionally and getting the same in return. An equalitarian  relationship would be ideal where both my husband and I pursue careers and have  equal say on housework and finances. Relationships have truly evolved over time. Christian beliefs have always  suppressed woman through marriage. We are shying away from ideas such as, woman  should learn in quietness and full submission. [God] does not permit a woman to teach  or to have authority over a man; she must be silent (Timothy 2.11). Thankfully now in  modern times, woman now have much more of a say in marriage and our society is  slowly accepting equalitarian type marriages. Monogamy and polygamy both offer  strengths and weaknesses within ones lifestyle, but one thing is for sure; no relationship is ever perfect.

Linguistic Politeness Study

Linguistic Politeness Study Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Over the last three decades, politeness has become one of the central discussions in pragmatic and sociolinguistic researches. A large number of theoretical, empirical books and articles about linguistic politeness that have been published, shows that politeness has become one of the most active areas of research in language use. Although the interest of politeness in both social and linguistic phenomenon significantly increased, many recent studies choose to drawn on conversational data, it was surprised that is only small numbers of scholars focused to study politeness in written text such as scientific written text rather than on conversational data recently. Even though the main stream of linguistic politeness is generally associated with social behaviour as strategic conflict avoidance, and the major concept of politeness theory is an arrangement of politeness strategies along a continuum from least polite to most polite, also allows them to engage in conflict-free communication, and it usually found in the study of conversational using speaker-hearer model of interactions. Many scholars do not realize that this politeness model also can be extended to other medium not only through verbal communication but also in a written material in terms of the interactions of the or authors and audiences in scientific texts. Furthermore, the advances of politeness models to some genres of scientific written texts is somehow interesting and in the other hand complex field to study. Greg Myers[1] (1989) in his study found that the model proposed by Brown and Levinson was very useful to explain how he interpret some construction of the norm of scientific culture found in writing, particularly academic writing. Brown and Levinson (1978/1987) present their study as part of the linguistic project of showing universals in language usage; the striking parallels in politeness devices between three unrelated languages shows that while the expressions of politeness may vary enormously from one culture to another, and the basic hierarchy of politeness strategies is not a culture specific. Brown and Levinsons (1987: 58) constructed a system in which a model person is endowed with negative and positive face; roughly the want to be unimpeded and the want to be approved of in certain respects. The model person also has a rational faculty for choosing the course of action that will give the highest pay-off with the least loss of face, evaluating three variables; the social distances (D); the relative difference in power between the speaker and hearer (P); the rank of imposition (R). These three basic variables seem still affective to help understanding the interactions of politeness between writers and readers in written text. Brown and Levinsons (BL) theory has been extensively used and also criticised. Although most of the scholars that studied politeness are agree that specific factors like power, social distance or status, influence the adoption of strategies, it is still difficult to provide definite conclusions. Moreover, by using Myers â€Å"room of thinking† above that linked to what Brown and Levinson had proposed in their study, this research tries to focus on the politeness strategies employed by the economists authors in academic journals, by concerning that at this time academic journals had reached a fabulous numbers both digital and printing material and also become a major references by scholars all over the world. On the other hand, the scholars that deeply focused to study the academic journals in the pragmatics or discourse analysis area says; politeness its still rare. By viewing that chances the researcher hopes that this study is able to contribute to the existing pool of knowledge on politeness strategies used in academic writing, particularly which in the writing of economic journal articles of two identified economic journals. 1.1 Statements of the Problem Started in the early 1950s, Schuler studied about the politeness in Germany and Goffman studied on â€Å"face work† in 1955. Nowadays, the study about politeness has become one of the major areas of pragmatics or sociolinguistics. Classical theories of linguistic politeness clarifies such as Lakoff (1973, 1977), Brown and Levinson (1987), Leech (1983) agree that linguistic politeness can be used as a strategic conflict avoidance. Linguistic politeness not only was applied by many people via verbal communication but also through the medium of written material both in academic or non academic fields, politeness persuasion in journal writing as a genre in academic writing somehow in line with the demands of the academic community that expects scientific language to be objective and formal. Further, the use of politeness persuasion or strategies in journal issues by particular people from different culture background, age and economic basic education is interesting field to discuss. Based on that statement above the main purposes of this study beyond the limits of this paper, to give an exhaustive overview of politeness-related research are to identify sort of politeness strategies employed by economist authors and analyze the politeness kinds of strategies in economic journal articles both local and international economic journal. 1.2 Objective of the Study In recent years there has been a steady increase in interest and research into economics discourse by both economists and linguists which has spawned an expanding body of work. The nature of this work in part reflects not only the varied academic backgrounds of the writers, but also the evolutionary development of linguistics in general and its sub-discipline of discourse analysis in particular. This body of work is not only in hope succeeding clarify many of the ways that economists use language to express themselves in polite way, but also can be use to help the public to understand the politeness style of writing from the economist in the scientific text. Furthermore based on the explanation above, this present study tried focused in identify politeness strategies employed by authors of economic journal communities both local and international economic journals, by proposing the objectives below; 1. To investigate how economists use language to present findings in polite way 2. To investigates the use of politeness strategies in economics text 3. To compare the use of politeness strategies in a local and international economic journals 1.3 Research Question Brown and Levinson (1987) have developed a theory of politeness to explain the nature of politeness phenomena in language. Through this exploratory study, the researcher will focus on the existence of linguistic politeness in economic articles. For this purpose the researcher study the selected local and international economic journals. The researcher focused on specific areas in these journals that the researcher feels exemplifies the existence of politeness strategies. Based on the explanation above, the present study aims to answer the following question: 1. What kinds of politeness strategies are employed by authors in local and international economic journal articles? 2. In what ways are local and international journals similar or different in the use of politeness strategies? 1.4 Significance of the study Politeness has become one of the fields of research to which more attention has been devoted in the last two decades. The connections of politeness studies with other domains, such as sociolinguistics, socio pragmatics, ethnography of communication, second language teaching/acquisition or conversational analysis, have definitely contributed to this growing interest and its exploratory study, the researcher choose to focus on the existence of politeness strategies n economic journals. Since the early 1980s, the discussion of various controversial issues in the economics discourse community has led to increasing debate among concerned economists about the ways that they communicate with each other, as well as with non-economists. Royce (1995) in his paper[2] mentions that; Although economics is considered to be a science and its language is often close to scientific language, within evidence the texts are often complemented by graphs. The influence of literary discourse is predominant. In 1986, Donald McCloskey published The Rhetoric of Economics and republished in 1998. McCloskey considers economic discourse as a language comprised of tropes; a word or phrase used in a sense not proper to it, tales and other rhetorical devices that are literary and rhetorical or persuasive rather than scientific or natural†. The specific aim of this research also to show that was an increasing awareness of the nature of economics discourse by both applied linguists and economists, For the purposes above, the research studies one locally and one international economic journal, published by economic associations from Malaysia and USA. This research try not to deeply focus on particular specific area what economist and linguist arguing about, but more on general issues of economic that become content respectively in these journals, that researcher feels exemplifies the existence of politeness strategies. 1.5 Scope and Limitation of The Study This present study will limit its data from selected journals released by economic associations from local and international to find out politeness strategies employed by the economists in two identified Economic journals, namely, Malaysia Journal of Economic Studies and the Journal of Economic Growth released by Malaysian Economic association and American economic association respectively. The corpus from those journal were chosen from the five year latest issues, start from 2004 until 2008 whereas this present study start it work. Here the study also limits its scope only on the content of the articles. The areas of Mathematical language, formula as well as footnote in the articles will be not included to analyze in this present study. 1.5 Theoretical Framework The present section presents the theoretical framework of the present study. Brown and Levinson (1987) have developed a theory of politeness to explain the nature of politeness phenomena in language. According to them, it is possible to define generic types of politeness strategies to explain and predict the adoption of politeness in oral or written discourse. Since the present study tries to focuses on the analyzing a politeness in written material that is academic journal both from local or international well known economic journals. The writer tries to use a formula that construct by Greg Myers (1989) in his articles â€Å"The Pragmatic Of Politeness In Scientific Articles† in line with what Brown and Levinson (1987) proposed in their book â€Å"Politeness; Some Universal in language Usage as underlying theoretical structure. Chapter.2 Review of Related Literature 2.0. Introduction The phenomenon of interest in politeness both social and linguistic has been significance increase over the last three decades as evidenced by the numbers of paper have appeared on the subject in international journal and monographs. The present research mostly, still based on Brown and Levinsons politeness theory (1978, 1987). The recent published literature on Brown and Levinsons model concerns two main aspects, which are the concept of politeness itself and the claims for universality on the one hand, and diverse criticism or modification of one of the elements of the model on the other; mainly the concepts of face, face-threatening act, and the factors that determine the production and interpretation of politeness, in the other hand. The notions of face, face threatening act (FTA) and politeness as well as the ways in which the phenomenon of politeness is realized in language usage have been extensively exploited who are concerned with linguistic pragmatics; Leech, 19983; Kasper, 1990; Brend 1978; Brown; 1988; Schmidt, 1980; Carrel and Konnoker, 1981; Ferguson, and many other scholars have explore the notions of face. Since the main focus of this present study is trying to put economic issues written by economist in economic journals related with politeness strategies as a main topic to discuss, the researcher in this chapter, will try to discuss about the theory of politeness, and explains about the terms related to the main topic, such as the different forms of face, FT[3]A and the factors seems to be interrelated in politeness system that also useful in studying politeness strategies in written material such as academic journal. 2.1 The Theory: A Brief Overview Brown and Levinsons (1978, 1987) theory of politeness has become the â€Å"model against which most research on politeness defines itself†. Central to BLs theory is the concept of face, as proposed by Goffman (1967) who defined face as: â€Å"†¦the positive social value of a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes -albeit an image that others might share, as when a person makes a good showing for his profession or religion by making a good showing for himself .(Goffman 1967: 5) BL define (1978:66) face as something that is emotionally invested and the face can be lost, maintained or enhanced and it must be constantly attended to in interaction, BL categorize politeness as either positive politeness or negative politeness and tie both strategies to the importance of face in every culture. They define ‘face as â€Å"the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself† Furthermore The main focus of BL (Brown and Levinson)[4] study as part of the linguistic project of showing universals in language usage; They construct a system in which a model person is endowed with negative and positive face; and tie both strategies to the importance of face in every culture. They define ‘face as â€Å"the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself† roughly the want to be unimpeded and the want to be approved of in certain respects (1987: 58). According to Brown and Levinson, â€Å"face wants† may consist of negative or positive face. When speakers appeal to positive face wants (i.e. the desire to be appreciated and approved of), they employ positive politeness language that emphasizes â€Å"in-group identity, shows concern, and seeks areas of agreement†. Compliments represent typical positive politeness strategies. When speakers appeal to negative face wants (i.e. the desire to be free from imposition and distraction), they use negative politeness strategies that seeks to reduce any imposition, such as apologies that represent the type negative politeness strategies. Further, basically in most situations, everyone seeks â€Å"to maintain each others face†. Thus, communicating effectively involves saving face-both for the speaker-identified by Brown and Levinson as (S) and for the addressee (H) or speaker and hearer. However, Brown and Levinson point out that S and H are mitigated by three other factors: power, social distance, and imposition. For example, S will speak more politely when the target (H) has more power than S, when the social distance between the two is great, and when the imposition is high. Before going further the following section tries to explain the first four politeness strategies of Brown and Levinsons with some examples, based on several studies done in the past that are related to the present study of politeness. Brown and Levinson identify five â€Å"super strategies† used to communicate. They list strategies from the most direct/impolite (bald-on-record) to the least direct/impolite (being silent). 2.1.1 Politeness Strategies According to Brown and Levinson (1978:65), certain acts can damage or threaten another persons face and these acts are referred to as face threatening acts (FTAs). An FTA[5] has the potential to damage the hearers positive or negative face or the act may damaged the spakers own positive or negative face. In order to reduce the possibility of damage to the hearers or the speakers face s/he may adopt certain strategies ; these strategies BL call politeness strategies (1978: 65). Politeness strategies can be divided into four main strategies: Bald-on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off-record strategies. Being polite therefore consists of attempting to save face for another, although all cultures have face as Brown and Levinson claim, all cultures do not maintain face in the same way. Brown and Levinson also claim that understanding cultural norms of politeness enables communicators to â€Å"make strong predictions† about communicating effectively within a culture, also politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearers face. Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that self-esteem in public or in private situations. The functions are to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable. Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with FTA. Next each of the strategies of BLs theory will be presented separately first Bald on record, then positive politeness, next negative politeness and finally off record strategies 2.1.1.1 Bald on record According to Brown and Levinson(1978: 74), Bald on record strategy is a direct way of saying things, without any minimisation to the imposition, in a direct, clear, unambiguous and concise way, for example â€Å"Do.X!†. Bl claim that the prime reason for bald on record usage may be stated simply: in general, whenever the speaker wants to do FTA with maximum efficiency more than s/he wants to satisfy hearers face, even to any degree, s/he will choose the bald on record strategy. There are different kinds of bald on record usage in different circumstances, because the speaker can have different motives for her/his want to do the FTA with minimum efficiency. The motives falls into two classes where the face threat is not minimised, where face is ignored or is irrelevant and 2) where in doing the FTA baldly on record, the speaker minimises face threats by implication. BL (1978: 100) Brown and Levinson (ibid,. 1978: 100) give examples of bald on record strategy and say that direct imperatives are clear examples of bald on record usage. Imperative are often softened with hedges or conventional politeness markers, eg: â€Å"please send us the offers†. Verb â€Å"do† is used with imperatives, like in â€Å"Do call us†. What BL call bald on record strategies might involve simply following the Gricean maxims, whereas politeness strategies would involve violating the maxims in specific way (Watss, Ide and Ehlich 1992:7) 2.1.1.2 Positive politeness Unlike negative politeness, Positive politeness is not necessarily redressive of the particular face infringed by the FTA; that is whereas in negative politeness the sphere of relevant redress is restricted to the imposition itself, in positive politeness the sphere of redress is widened to the appreciation of alters want in general or to the expression of similarity egos and alters want. The positive politeness is usually seen n groups of friends, or where people the given social situation know each other fairly well, it usually tries to minimize the distance between them, by expressing friendliness and solid interest in the hearers need to be expected (minimize FTA) According to Brown and Levinson (1978: 106) positive politeness is redress directed to the addressees positive face, his/her perennial desire to the his/her wants or actions acquisitions, values resulting from them -should be thought of as desirable. BL describe that the redress consists in partially satisfying that desire that ones own wants or some of them are in some respects similar to the addressees wants. BL also notes that unlike negative politeness, positive politeness is not necessarily redressive of the particular face want infringe by the FTA. In other words whereas in negative politeness the sphere of relevant redress is restricted to the imposition itself, in positive politeness the sphere of redress is widened to the appreciation of alters wants in general or to the expression of similarity between egos and alters wants . â€Å". . .the linguistic realizations of positive politeness are in many respects simply representative of the normal linguistic behaviour between intimates, where interest and approval of each others personality, presuppositions indicating shared wants and shared knowledge, implicit claims to reciprocity of obligations or to reflexivity of wants, etc. Are routinely exchanged. Perhaps the only feature that distinguishes positive politeness redress from normal everyday intimate language behaviour is an element of exaggeration; this serves as a marker of the face-redress aspect of positive politeness expression by indicating that even S cant with total sincerity say â€Å"I want your wants† he can at least sincerely indicate â€Å"I want your positive face to be satisfied Brown and Levinson (1978: 106) BL add the element of insincerity in exaggerated expressions of approval or interest [6] As in : â€Å"how absolutely marvellous and exquisite your roses are ,Mrs.Pete† is compensate for by the implication that the speaker really sincerely wants Mrs. Petes positive face to be enhanced. This perspectives of intimacy is interesting when considering articles in economic journal between authors and audiences is not usually very intimate and if it were, intimacy would be disregard while doing a scientific claim. In this sense, it could be expected that not many strategies of positive politeness would be used or are used rarely in article economic journals BL also explain that the association with intimate language usage gives the linguistic of positive politeness its redressive force. They claim that positive politeness utterances are used as a kind of metaphorical extensions of intimacy, to imply common ground or sharing of wants to a limited extension of intimacy, to imply common ground or sharing of wants to a limited extent even between strangers who perceive themselves for the purposes of the interaction as somehow similar. This is true when considering economic articles, in fact some times authors and audience[7] has similar knowledge in general or purpose in common. BL also point out that the positive politeness techniques are usable not only for FTA redress but in general as a kind of accelerator, where S, in using them, indicates s/he wants â€Å"to come closer† to H or audiences. BL divide positive politeness into three strategies; claiming the common ground, conveying that sender and receiver are co-operators and fulfilling receivers want. . 2.1.1.3 Negative Politeness When Brown and Levinson define negative politeness, they say that it is a redressive action addressed to the addressees negative face: addressees want to have addressees freedom of action unhindered and addressees attention unimpeded. Furthermore According to BL (1978:134) Negative politeness is the heart of respective behaviour, just as positive politeness is the kernel of â€Å"familiar† and â€Å"joking† behaviour. Negative politeness corresponds to the rituals of avoidance. Where positive politeness is free-ranging, negative politeness is specific and focused; it performs the function of minimizing the particular imposition that the FTA unavoidable effects, BL also argue that negative politeness is the kind of politeness used between acquaintances whereas positive politeness is used between closer friends. Negative politeness is the most elaborate and the most conventionalized set of linguistic strategies for FTA redress; it fills the etiquette books although positive politeness gets some attention. Further according to BL (1987: 135) the linguistic realization of negative politeness conventional indirectness, hedges on illocutionary force, polite pessimism[8], the emphasis on hearers relative power are very familiar and need no introduction. In addition , BL say that the negative politeness outputs are all forms usefull in general for social â€Å"distancing†[9]: they are therefore likely to be used whenever a speaker or sender wants to put a social brake on the course of interaction. BL, see five main categories as the linguistic realization of negative politeness; communicating senders want not to impinge the receiver, not coercing receiver, not presuming/assuming, being (conventionally in) direct and redressing receivers wants. 2.1.1.4 Off Record Brown and Levinsons (1978:216) define off record strategy as a communicative act which is done in such a way that is not possible to attribute one clear communicative intention to the act. In this case the actor leaves her/himself an â€Å"out† by providing her/himself with a number of defensible interpretations, s/he cannot be held to have a committed himself to just one particular interpretation of her/his act. In other words, BL claim, the actor leaves it up to the addressee to decided how to interpret act. Further, BL continue that such off record utterances are essential indirect uses of language. One says something that is either more general (contains less information in the sense that it rules out fewer possible states of affairs) or actually different from what one means (intend to be understood). BL continue claim that in both cases the hearer must make some inference to recover what was in fact intended. For example, if somebody says: â€Å"it is hot in here†, the hidden meaning of the utterance can be request to open the window or to switch on the fan. BL, (1978: 230-232), list inviting conversational implicatures as one main strategy of off record-ness and its subcategories are; giving hints, giving association clues, presupposing, understating, overstating, using tautologies, using contradictions, being ironic, using metaphors, and using rhetorical question. The other main strategy of going off record is being vague or ambiguous and its subcategories are being ambiguous, being vague, over-generalising, displacing hearer and being incomplete. 2.1.2 Face Politeness theory states that some speech acts threaten others face needs. The concept of face has come to play an important role in politeness theory. Brown and Levinson, for example, have chosen it as the central notion for their study of universals in language usage and politeness phenomena (1978, 1987). Brown and Levinson says that they have derived the notion of face from Ervin Goffman in social interaction. Our notion of face is derived from that of Goffman and from the English folk term, which ties up face notions of being embarrassed or humiliated, or losing face. Thus face is something that is emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained or enhanced, and must be constantly attended to in interaction. In general, people cooperate (and assume each others cooperation) in maintaining face in interaction, such cooperation being based on the mutual vulnerability of face (1987:63) In 1963, Erving Goffman published the article On Face Work where he first created the term â€Å"face.† He discusses face in reference to how people present themselves in social situations and that our entire reality is constructed through our social interactions. Face is a mask that changes depending on the audience and the social interaction (Goffman, 1967). Face is maintained by the audience, not by the speaker. We strive to maintain the face we have created in social situations. Face is broken down by Goffman into two different categories. Positive face is the desire of being seen as a good human being and negative face is the desire to remain autonomous. Moreover he argues that there is a limited amount of strategies to maintain face. Face in communicative events is a universal concept, but it is employed in culture specific ways. It is defined in psychological, philosophical and symbolic terms, â€Å"the term face may be defined as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume s/he has taken during a particular contact†. Face generally involves interlocutors mutual recognition as social members of a society. Face can be lost, maintained, or enhanced and must be constantly attended to in interaction. Brown and Levinson (1978; 1987), presented politeness as a formal theoretical construct based on earlier work on face by sociologist Goffman, (1963) as already mentioned above, BL said that we are all motivated by two desires: (positive face), and (negative face). The working definition and examples on both negative and positive face presented below. 2.1.2.1 Negative Face The negative face is the maintenance and defence of ones territory and freedom from imposition. The negative face is an inalienable. Negative face is the desire to be autonomous and not to infringe on the other person. Negative politeness is designed to protect the other person when negative face needs are threatened. Thus there are different strategies to handle face threatening acts and these strategies are put into a hierarchy of effectiveness. 2.1.2.2 Positive Face The positive face, on the other hand, is the claim for the recognition and appropriate validation of ones social self-image or personality. The positive face is the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some other members of the society. Also is the desire to be liked and appreciated. Positive politeness is designed to meet the face needs by performing an action like complimenting or showing concern for another person (Held 1989 and ODriscoll 1996) 2.1.2.3. FTA Holtgraves and Yang (1992) defines politeness as phrasing ones remarks so as to minimize face threat. Here, Face Threatening Act (FTA) is acts like promises, apologies, expressing thanks, ven non verbal acts such as stumbling, falling down or any utterance that intrinsically threatens anothers face (positive or negative) and includes disagreement, criticism, orders, delivery of bad news, and request. For examples; simple request threaten the targets negative face because the targets compliance with the request interferers with his/her desire to remain autonomous. Criticism threatens his/her desire for approval Furthermore, Brown and Levinson (1987) propose that when confronted with the need to perform a FTA, the individual must choose between performing the FTA in the most direct and efficient manner, or attempting to mitigate the effect of the FTA on the hearers positive/negative face. The mitigation strategies are what BL labelled as politeness strategies. 2.1.3 Politeness Systems Since Goffmans (1967) work, politeness has become one of the most active areas of research in language use. The literature on the subject is mammoth-like, the research on politeness falls into three categories: (1) work that constructs theories of politeness, such as Lakoff (1973, 1977), Brown and Levinson (1987), Leech (1983), Fraser (1990), and Escandell-Vidal (1996); (2) work that investigates cultural- specific concepts and strategies of politeness, such as Hill et al. (1986), Gu (1992), Lindenfeld (1990), and Sherzer (1983); (3) work that applies existing theories to data from various cultures, such as Chen (1993, 1996), Garcia (1989), Rhodes (1989), and Holmes (1990). Although these researchers differ in important ways, they share a common focus on politeness system, that specific factors influence the adoption of strategies. Similar with Scollon and Scollon (1981) proposed the face relationships into three politeness systems namely; Difference, solidarity and hierarchical. An explanation on those politeness systems presented below. 2.1 Linguistic Politeness Study Linguistic Politeness Study Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Over the last three decades, politeness has become one of the central discussions in pragmatic and sociolinguistic researches. A large number of theoretical, empirical books and articles about linguistic politeness that have been published, shows that politeness has become one of the most active areas of research in language use. Although the interest of politeness in both social and linguistic phenomenon significantly increased, many recent studies choose to drawn on conversational data, it was surprised that is only small numbers of scholars focused to study politeness in written text such as scientific written text rather than on conversational data recently. Even though the main stream of linguistic politeness is generally associated with social behaviour as strategic conflict avoidance, and the major concept of politeness theory is an arrangement of politeness strategies along a continuum from least polite to most polite, also allows them to engage in conflict-free communication, and it usually found in the study of conversational using speaker-hearer model of interactions. Many scholars do not realize that this politeness model also can be extended to other medium not only through verbal communication but also in a written material in terms of the interactions of the or authors and audiences in scientific texts. Furthermore, the advances of politeness models to some genres of scientific written texts is somehow interesting and in the other hand complex field to study. Greg Myers[1] (1989) in his study found that the model proposed by Brown and Levinson was very useful to explain how he interpret some construction of the norm of scientific culture found in writing, particularly academic writing. Brown and Levinson (1978/1987) present their study as part of the linguistic project of showing universals in language usage; the striking parallels in politeness devices between three unrelated languages shows that while the expressions of politeness may vary enormously from one culture to another, and the basic hierarchy of politeness strategies is not a culture specific. Brown and Levinsons (1987: 58) constructed a system in which a model person is endowed with negative and positive face; roughly the want to be unimpeded and the want to be approved of in certain respects. The model person also has a rational faculty for choosing the course of action that will give the highest pay-off with the least loss of face, evaluating three variables; the social distances (D); the relative difference in power between the speaker and hearer (P); the rank of imposition (R). These three basic variables seem still affective to help understanding the interactions of politeness between writers and readers in written text. Brown and Levinsons (BL) theory has been extensively used and also criticised. Although most of the scholars that studied politeness are agree that specific factors like power, social distance or status, influence the adoption of strategies, it is still difficult to provide definite conclusions. Moreover, by using Myers â€Å"room of thinking† above that linked to what Brown and Levinson had proposed in their study, this research tries to focus on the politeness strategies employed by the economists authors in academic journals, by concerning that at this time academic journals had reached a fabulous numbers both digital and printing material and also become a major references by scholars all over the world. On the other hand, the scholars that deeply focused to study the academic journals in the pragmatics or discourse analysis area says; politeness its still rare. By viewing that chances the researcher hopes that this study is able to contribute to the existing pool of knowledge on politeness strategies used in academic writing, particularly which in the writing of economic journal articles of two identified economic journals. 1.1 Statements of the Problem Started in the early 1950s, Schuler studied about the politeness in Germany and Goffman studied on â€Å"face work† in 1955. Nowadays, the study about politeness has become one of the major areas of pragmatics or sociolinguistics. Classical theories of linguistic politeness clarifies such as Lakoff (1973, 1977), Brown and Levinson (1987), Leech (1983) agree that linguistic politeness can be used as a strategic conflict avoidance. Linguistic politeness not only was applied by many people via verbal communication but also through the medium of written material both in academic or non academic fields, politeness persuasion in journal writing as a genre in academic writing somehow in line with the demands of the academic community that expects scientific language to be objective and formal. Further, the use of politeness persuasion or strategies in journal issues by particular people from different culture background, age and economic basic education is interesting field to discuss. Based on that statement above the main purposes of this study beyond the limits of this paper, to give an exhaustive overview of politeness-related research are to identify sort of politeness strategies employed by economist authors and analyze the politeness kinds of strategies in economic journal articles both local and international economic journal. 1.2 Objective of the Study In recent years there has been a steady increase in interest and research into economics discourse by both economists and linguists which has spawned an expanding body of work. The nature of this work in part reflects not only the varied academic backgrounds of the writers, but also the evolutionary development of linguistics in general and its sub-discipline of discourse analysis in particular. This body of work is not only in hope succeeding clarify many of the ways that economists use language to express themselves in polite way, but also can be use to help the public to understand the politeness style of writing from the economist in the scientific text. Furthermore based on the explanation above, this present study tried focused in identify politeness strategies employed by authors of economic journal communities both local and international economic journals, by proposing the objectives below; 1. To investigate how economists use language to present findings in polite way 2. To investigates the use of politeness strategies in economics text 3. To compare the use of politeness strategies in a local and international economic journals 1.3 Research Question Brown and Levinson (1987) have developed a theory of politeness to explain the nature of politeness phenomena in language. Through this exploratory study, the researcher will focus on the existence of linguistic politeness in economic articles. For this purpose the researcher study the selected local and international economic journals. The researcher focused on specific areas in these journals that the researcher feels exemplifies the existence of politeness strategies. Based on the explanation above, the present study aims to answer the following question: 1. What kinds of politeness strategies are employed by authors in local and international economic journal articles? 2. In what ways are local and international journals similar or different in the use of politeness strategies? 1.4 Significance of the study Politeness has become one of the fields of research to which more attention has been devoted in the last two decades. The connections of politeness studies with other domains, such as sociolinguistics, socio pragmatics, ethnography of communication, second language teaching/acquisition or conversational analysis, have definitely contributed to this growing interest and its exploratory study, the researcher choose to focus on the existence of politeness strategies n economic journals. Since the early 1980s, the discussion of various controversial issues in the economics discourse community has led to increasing debate among concerned economists about the ways that they communicate with each other, as well as with non-economists. Royce (1995) in his paper[2] mentions that; Although economics is considered to be a science and its language is often close to scientific language, within evidence the texts are often complemented by graphs. The influence of literary discourse is predominant. In 1986, Donald McCloskey published The Rhetoric of Economics and republished in 1998. McCloskey considers economic discourse as a language comprised of tropes; a word or phrase used in a sense not proper to it, tales and other rhetorical devices that are literary and rhetorical or persuasive rather than scientific or natural†. The specific aim of this research also to show that was an increasing awareness of the nature of economics discourse by both applied linguists and economists, For the purposes above, the research studies one locally and one international economic journal, published by economic associations from Malaysia and USA. This research try not to deeply focus on particular specific area what economist and linguist arguing about, but more on general issues of economic that become content respectively in these journals, that researcher feels exemplifies the existence of politeness strategies. 1.5 Scope and Limitation of The Study This present study will limit its data from selected journals released by economic associations from local and international to find out politeness strategies employed by the economists in two identified Economic journals, namely, Malaysia Journal of Economic Studies and the Journal of Economic Growth released by Malaysian Economic association and American economic association respectively. The corpus from those journal were chosen from the five year latest issues, start from 2004 until 2008 whereas this present study start it work. Here the study also limits its scope only on the content of the articles. The areas of Mathematical language, formula as well as footnote in the articles will be not included to analyze in this present study. 1.5 Theoretical Framework The present section presents the theoretical framework of the present study. Brown and Levinson (1987) have developed a theory of politeness to explain the nature of politeness phenomena in language. According to them, it is possible to define generic types of politeness strategies to explain and predict the adoption of politeness in oral or written discourse. Since the present study tries to focuses on the analyzing a politeness in written material that is academic journal both from local or international well known economic journals. The writer tries to use a formula that construct by Greg Myers (1989) in his articles â€Å"The Pragmatic Of Politeness In Scientific Articles† in line with what Brown and Levinson (1987) proposed in their book â€Å"Politeness; Some Universal in language Usage as underlying theoretical structure. Chapter.2 Review of Related Literature 2.0. Introduction The phenomenon of interest in politeness both social and linguistic has been significance increase over the last three decades as evidenced by the numbers of paper have appeared on the subject in international journal and monographs. The present research mostly, still based on Brown and Levinsons politeness theory (1978, 1987). The recent published literature on Brown and Levinsons model concerns two main aspects, which are the concept of politeness itself and the claims for universality on the one hand, and diverse criticism or modification of one of the elements of the model on the other; mainly the concepts of face, face-threatening act, and the factors that determine the production and interpretation of politeness, in the other hand. The notions of face, face threatening act (FTA) and politeness as well as the ways in which the phenomenon of politeness is realized in language usage have been extensively exploited who are concerned with linguistic pragmatics; Leech, 19983; Kasper, 1990; Brend 1978; Brown; 1988; Schmidt, 1980; Carrel and Konnoker, 1981; Ferguson, and many other scholars have explore the notions of face. Since the main focus of this present study is trying to put economic issues written by economist in economic journals related with politeness strategies as a main topic to discuss, the researcher in this chapter, will try to discuss about the theory of politeness, and explains about the terms related to the main topic, such as the different forms of face, FT[3]A and the factors seems to be interrelated in politeness system that also useful in studying politeness strategies in written material such as academic journal. 2.1 The Theory: A Brief Overview Brown and Levinsons (1978, 1987) theory of politeness has become the â€Å"model against which most research on politeness defines itself†. Central to BLs theory is the concept of face, as proposed by Goffman (1967) who defined face as: â€Å"†¦the positive social value of a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact. Face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes -albeit an image that others might share, as when a person makes a good showing for his profession or religion by making a good showing for himself .(Goffman 1967: 5) BL define (1978:66) face as something that is emotionally invested and the face can be lost, maintained or enhanced and it must be constantly attended to in interaction, BL categorize politeness as either positive politeness or negative politeness and tie both strategies to the importance of face in every culture. They define ‘face as â€Å"the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself† Furthermore The main focus of BL (Brown and Levinson)[4] study as part of the linguistic project of showing universals in language usage; They construct a system in which a model person is endowed with negative and positive face; and tie both strategies to the importance of face in every culture. They define ‘face as â€Å"the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself† roughly the want to be unimpeded and the want to be approved of in certain respects (1987: 58). According to Brown and Levinson, â€Å"face wants† may consist of negative or positive face. When speakers appeal to positive face wants (i.e. the desire to be appreciated and approved of), they employ positive politeness language that emphasizes â€Å"in-group identity, shows concern, and seeks areas of agreement†. Compliments represent typical positive politeness strategies. When speakers appeal to negative face wants (i.e. the desire to be free from imposition and distraction), they use negative politeness strategies that seeks to reduce any imposition, such as apologies that represent the type negative politeness strategies. Further, basically in most situations, everyone seeks â€Å"to maintain each others face†. Thus, communicating effectively involves saving face-both for the speaker-identified by Brown and Levinson as (S) and for the addressee (H) or speaker and hearer. However, Brown and Levinson point out that S and H are mitigated by three other factors: power, social distance, and imposition. For example, S will speak more politely when the target (H) has more power than S, when the social distance between the two is great, and when the imposition is high. Before going further the following section tries to explain the first four politeness strategies of Brown and Levinsons with some examples, based on several studies done in the past that are related to the present study of politeness. Brown and Levinson identify five â€Å"super strategies† used to communicate. They list strategies from the most direct/impolite (bald-on-record) to the least direct/impolite (being silent). 2.1.1 Politeness Strategies According to Brown and Levinson (1978:65), certain acts can damage or threaten another persons face and these acts are referred to as face threatening acts (FTAs). An FTA[5] has the potential to damage the hearers positive or negative face or the act may damaged the spakers own positive or negative face. In order to reduce the possibility of damage to the hearers or the speakers face s/he may adopt certain strategies ; these strategies BL call politeness strategies (1978: 65). Politeness strategies can be divided into four main strategies: Bald-on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off-record strategies. Being polite therefore consists of attempting to save face for another, although all cultures have face as Brown and Levinson claim, all cultures do not maintain face in the same way. Brown and Levinson also claim that understanding cultural norms of politeness enables communicators to â€Å"make strong predictions† about communicating effectively within a culture, also politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearers face. Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that self-esteem in public or in private situations. The functions are to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable. Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with FTA. Next each of the strategies of BLs theory will be presented separately first Bald on record, then positive politeness, next negative politeness and finally off record strategies 2.1.1.1 Bald on record According to Brown and Levinson(1978: 74), Bald on record strategy is a direct way of saying things, without any minimisation to the imposition, in a direct, clear, unambiguous and concise way, for example â€Å"Do.X!†. Bl claim that the prime reason for bald on record usage may be stated simply: in general, whenever the speaker wants to do FTA with maximum efficiency more than s/he wants to satisfy hearers face, even to any degree, s/he will choose the bald on record strategy. There are different kinds of bald on record usage in different circumstances, because the speaker can have different motives for her/his want to do the FTA with minimum efficiency. The motives falls into two classes where the face threat is not minimised, where face is ignored or is irrelevant and 2) where in doing the FTA baldly on record, the speaker minimises face threats by implication. BL (1978: 100) Brown and Levinson (ibid,. 1978: 100) give examples of bald on record strategy and say that direct imperatives are clear examples of bald on record usage. Imperative are often softened with hedges or conventional politeness markers, eg: â€Å"please send us the offers†. Verb â€Å"do† is used with imperatives, like in â€Å"Do call us†. What BL call bald on record strategies might involve simply following the Gricean maxims, whereas politeness strategies would involve violating the maxims in specific way (Watss, Ide and Ehlich 1992:7) 2.1.1.2 Positive politeness Unlike negative politeness, Positive politeness is not necessarily redressive of the particular face infringed by the FTA; that is whereas in negative politeness the sphere of relevant redress is restricted to the imposition itself, in positive politeness the sphere of redress is widened to the appreciation of alters want in general or to the expression of similarity egos and alters want. The positive politeness is usually seen n groups of friends, or where people the given social situation know each other fairly well, it usually tries to minimize the distance between them, by expressing friendliness and solid interest in the hearers need to be expected (minimize FTA) According to Brown and Levinson (1978: 106) positive politeness is redress directed to the addressees positive face, his/her perennial desire to the his/her wants or actions acquisitions, values resulting from them -should be thought of as desirable. BL describe that the redress consists in partially satisfying that desire that ones own wants or some of them are in some respects similar to the addressees wants. BL also notes that unlike negative politeness, positive politeness is not necessarily redressive of the particular face want infringe by the FTA. In other words whereas in negative politeness the sphere of relevant redress is restricted to the imposition itself, in positive politeness the sphere of redress is widened to the appreciation of alters wants in general or to the expression of similarity between egos and alters wants . â€Å". . .the linguistic realizations of positive politeness are in many respects simply representative of the normal linguistic behaviour between intimates, where interest and approval of each others personality, presuppositions indicating shared wants and shared knowledge, implicit claims to reciprocity of obligations or to reflexivity of wants, etc. Are routinely exchanged. Perhaps the only feature that distinguishes positive politeness redress from normal everyday intimate language behaviour is an element of exaggeration; this serves as a marker of the face-redress aspect of positive politeness expression by indicating that even S cant with total sincerity say â€Å"I want your wants† he can at least sincerely indicate â€Å"I want your positive face to be satisfied Brown and Levinson (1978: 106) BL add the element of insincerity in exaggerated expressions of approval or interest [6] As in : â€Å"how absolutely marvellous and exquisite your roses are ,Mrs.Pete† is compensate for by the implication that the speaker really sincerely wants Mrs. Petes positive face to be enhanced. This perspectives of intimacy is interesting when considering articles in economic journal between authors and audiences is not usually very intimate and if it were, intimacy would be disregard while doing a scientific claim. In this sense, it could be expected that not many strategies of positive politeness would be used or are used rarely in article economic journals BL also explain that the association with intimate language usage gives the linguistic of positive politeness its redressive force. They claim that positive politeness utterances are used as a kind of metaphorical extensions of intimacy, to imply common ground or sharing of wants to a limited extension of intimacy, to imply common ground or sharing of wants to a limited extent even between strangers who perceive themselves for the purposes of the interaction as somehow similar. This is true when considering economic articles, in fact some times authors and audience[7] has similar knowledge in general or purpose in common. BL also point out that the positive politeness techniques are usable not only for FTA redress but in general as a kind of accelerator, where S, in using them, indicates s/he wants â€Å"to come closer† to H or audiences. BL divide positive politeness into three strategies; claiming the common ground, conveying that sender and receiver are co-operators and fulfilling receivers want. . 2.1.1.3 Negative Politeness When Brown and Levinson define negative politeness, they say that it is a redressive action addressed to the addressees negative face: addressees want to have addressees freedom of action unhindered and addressees attention unimpeded. Furthermore According to BL (1978:134) Negative politeness is the heart of respective behaviour, just as positive politeness is the kernel of â€Å"familiar† and â€Å"joking† behaviour. Negative politeness corresponds to the rituals of avoidance. Where positive politeness is free-ranging, negative politeness is specific and focused; it performs the function of minimizing the particular imposition that the FTA unavoidable effects, BL also argue that negative politeness is the kind of politeness used between acquaintances whereas positive politeness is used between closer friends. Negative politeness is the most elaborate and the most conventionalized set of linguistic strategies for FTA redress; it fills the etiquette books although positive politeness gets some attention. Further according to BL (1987: 135) the linguistic realization of negative politeness conventional indirectness, hedges on illocutionary force, polite pessimism[8], the emphasis on hearers relative power are very familiar and need no introduction. In addition , BL say that the negative politeness outputs are all forms usefull in general for social â€Å"distancing†[9]: they are therefore likely to be used whenever a speaker or sender wants to put a social brake on the course of interaction. BL, see five main categories as the linguistic realization of negative politeness; communicating senders want not to impinge the receiver, not coercing receiver, not presuming/assuming, being (conventionally in) direct and redressing receivers wants. 2.1.1.4 Off Record Brown and Levinsons (1978:216) define off record strategy as a communicative act which is done in such a way that is not possible to attribute one clear communicative intention to the act. In this case the actor leaves her/himself an â€Å"out† by providing her/himself with a number of defensible interpretations, s/he cannot be held to have a committed himself to just one particular interpretation of her/his act. In other words, BL claim, the actor leaves it up to the addressee to decided how to interpret act. Further, BL continue that such off record utterances are essential indirect uses of language. One says something that is either more general (contains less information in the sense that it rules out fewer possible states of affairs) or actually different from what one means (intend to be understood). BL continue claim that in both cases the hearer must make some inference to recover what was in fact intended. For example, if somebody says: â€Å"it is hot in here†, the hidden meaning of the utterance can be request to open the window or to switch on the fan. BL, (1978: 230-232), list inviting conversational implicatures as one main strategy of off record-ness and its subcategories are; giving hints, giving association clues, presupposing, understating, overstating, using tautologies, using contradictions, being ironic, using metaphors, and using rhetorical question. The other main strategy of going off record is being vague or ambiguous and its subcategories are being ambiguous, being vague, over-generalising, displacing hearer and being incomplete. 2.1.2 Face Politeness theory states that some speech acts threaten others face needs. The concept of face has come to play an important role in politeness theory. Brown and Levinson, for example, have chosen it as the central notion for their study of universals in language usage and politeness phenomena (1978, 1987). Brown and Levinson says that they have derived the notion of face from Ervin Goffman in social interaction. Our notion of face is derived from that of Goffman and from the English folk term, which ties up face notions of being embarrassed or humiliated, or losing face. Thus face is something that is emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained or enhanced, and must be constantly attended to in interaction. In general, people cooperate (and assume each others cooperation) in maintaining face in interaction, such cooperation being based on the mutual vulnerability of face (1987:63) In 1963, Erving Goffman published the article On Face Work where he first created the term â€Å"face.† He discusses face in reference to how people present themselves in social situations and that our entire reality is constructed through our social interactions. Face is a mask that changes depending on the audience and the social interaction (Goffman, 1967). Face is maintained by the audience, not by the speaker. We strive to maintain the face we have created in social situations. Face is broken down by Goffman into two different categories. Positive face is the desire of being seen as a good human being and negative face is the desire to remain autonomous. Moreover he argues that there is a limited amount of strategies to maintain face. Face in communicative events is a universal concept, but it is employed in culture specific ways. It is defined in psychological, philosophical and symbolic terms, â€Å"the term face may be defined as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume s/he has taken during a particular contact†. Face generally involves interlocutors mutual recognition as social members of a society. Face can be lost, maintained, or enhanced and must be constantly attended to in interaction. Brown and Levinson (1978; 1987), presented politeness as a formal theoretical construct based on earlier work on face by sociologist Goffman, (1963) as already mentioned above, BL said that we are all motivated by two desires: (positive face), and (negative face). The working definition and examples on both negative and positive face presented below. 2.1.2.1 Negative Face The negative face is the maintenance and defence of ones territory and freedom from imposition. The negative face is an inalienable. Negative face is the desire to be autonomous and not to infringe on the other person. Negative politeness is designed to protect the other person when negative face needs are threatened. Thus there are different strategies to handle face threatening acts and these strategies are put into a hierarchy of effectiveness. 2.1.2.2 Positive Face The positive face, on the other hand, is the claim for the recognition and appropriate validation of ones social self-image or personality. The positive face is the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some other members of the society. Also is the desire to be liked and appreciated. Positive politeness is designed to meet the face needs by performing an action like complimenting or showing concern for another person (Held 1989 and ODriscoll 1996) 2.1.2.3. FTA Holtgraves and Yang (1992) defines politeness as phrasing ones remarks so as to minimize face threat. Here, Face Threatening Act (FTA) is acts like promises, apologies, expressing thanks, ven non verbal acts such as stumbling, falling down or any utterance that intrinsically threatens anothers face (positive or negative) and includes disagreement, criticism, orders, delivery of bad news, and request. For examples; simple request threaten the targets negative face because the targets compliance with the request interferers with his/her desire to remain autonomous. Criticism threatens his/her desire for approval Furthermore, Brown and Levinson (1987) propose that when confronted with the need to perform a FTA, the individual must choose between performing the FTA in the most direct and efficient manner, or attempting to mitigate the effect of the FTA on the hearers positive/negative face. The mitigation strategies are what BL labelled as politeness strategies. 2.1.3 Politeness Systems Since Goffmans (1967) work, politeness has become one of the most active areas of research in language use. The literature on the subject is mammoth-like, the research on politeness falls into three categories: (1) work that constructs theories of politeness, such as Lakoff (1973, 1977), Brown and Levinson (1987), Leech (1983), Fraser (1990), and Escandell-Vidal (1996); (2) work that investigates cultural- specific concepts and strategies of politeness, such as Hill et al. (1986), Gu (1992), Lindenfeld (1990), and Sherzer (1983); (3) work that applies existing theories to data from various cultures, such as Chen (1993, 1996), Garcia (1989), Rhodes (1989), and Holmes (1990). Although these researchers differ in important ways, they share a common focus on politeness system, that specific factors influence the adoption of strategies. Similar with Scollon and Scollon (1981) proposed the face relationships into three politeness systems namely; Difference, solidarity and hierarchical. An explanation on those politeness systems presented below. 2.1